Education degrees and Education loan_05
Despite some claims that returns to primary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university are invariably high across countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, there is growing skepticism. The work of such authors as Behrman and Birdsall (1985), Hinchliffe (1986), Knight and Sabot (1990), and Glewwe (1991) suggests that calculations have often incorporated upward biases. This has led Weale (1993) to argue that social returns to education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university will only rarely be in double digits.
This paragraph was used to explain how the relatively low estimates of rates of return in India could be reconciled with the higher figures reported for other countries. The World Bank publication (1997c, 36-8) presented two tables of rates of return, one from the state of Andhra Pradesh in 1977 and the other from the state of Maharashtra in 1988. The former showed social rates of return which, after adjustment for wastage, unemployment, nonparticipation in the labor force, and student ability, were only 7 percent at the primary education level, 6 percent for middle schools and general degrees, and negative for secondary schools. The latter showed rates of return for primary and middle schools that were higher in urban than rural areas, and in most cases higher for females than males, but that ranged from 3.5 to 8.3 percent. Nevertheless, the document pointed out, future rates of return could at least be expected to be positive, and investment in education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university would also bring non-economic benefits.
This paragraph was used to explain how the relatively low estimates of rates of return in India could be reconciled with the higher figures reported for other countries. The World Bank publication (1997c, 36-8) presented two tables of rates of return, one from the state of Andhra Pradesh in 1977 and the other from the state of Maharashtra in 1988. The former showed social rates of return which, after adjustment for wastage, unemployment, nonparticipation in the labor force, and student ability, were only 7 percent at the primary education level, 6 percent for middle schools and general degrees, and negative for secondary schools. The latter showed rates of return for primary and middle schools that were higher in urban than rural areas, and in most cases higher for females than males, but that ranged from 3.5 to 8.3 percent. Nevertheless, the document pointed out, future rates of return could at least be expected to be positive, and investment in education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university would also bring non-economic benefits.
Challenge to Psacharopoulos' work with specific reference to Asia has also been presented by Bennell (1998). Two particular criticisms have been leveled (p.110). The first is that regional aggregations presented by Psacharopoulos are problematic because the individual country studies do not all cover every level and type of education like education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university and because they vary widely in the periods of history when they were conducted. The second criticism is that Psacharopoulos relied wherever possible on unadjusted rates of return, which implied very simplistic relationships between education and incomes and which failed to take sufficient account of the many other factors which influence incomes. Table 8 reproduces figures on the impact of such adjustment, which showed significantly lower estimates.Bennell also highlighted two reporting errors among the 13 Asian countries used in Psacharopoulos' regional aggregate, and noted the existence of other studies that had been excluded from Psacharopoulos' survey. He concluded (p.118) that aggregations "should be discarded altogether in any serious discussion of education investment, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university priorities both for the Asian continent as a whole and individual countries.” He agreed on the value of the concept of rates of return, but added that the majority of studies that have attempted to calculate rates of return for specific types of education like education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university and training are seriously flawed, mainly because sufficient data are rarely available.
Also significant is work by Mingat and Tan (1996), who aimed to estimate the “full” social returns to education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university in economies with different strengths. Such externalities include the fact that a worker's enhanced productivity can have a spillover effect of enhancing coworkers' productivity; and that the general level of education like education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university in the workforce expands production possibilities by facilitating the discovery, adaptation, and use of more economically rewarding production processes. Mingat and Tan used this conceptual framework to reappraise the extent to which investments in education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university had contributed to economic growth in a range of countries during the period 1960 to 1985. Their findings call into question the rather generalized recommendations from some previous studies of rates of return. In particular, they suggest that for low-income countries primary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university was the best investment, but that in hindsight for middle- income countries expansion of secondary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university would have yielded the highest social returns, and that in high-income countries the returns would have been greatest in tertiary education. This last observation is consistent with the work by Toh and Wong (1999) who indicated that in Singapore rates of return appeared to increase with the level of education like education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university, though in the period 1980-1994 the tertiary
rate of return seemed to decrease over time. Further complexities arise from the fact that former socialist countries have inherited wage structures that may work differently from those in long-standing capitalist countries. Newell and Reilly (1999) have presented data from 10 former socialist states, of which two Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are in Asia. In these 10 countries, rates of return appeared generally to have risen as the 1990s progressed; the returns from tertiary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university appeared to be higher than those for technical education and, where data were available, for secondary schooling. Wei et al. (1999) conducted a study in the PRC, and found that rates of return varied considerably in different parts of the country. They tended to be higher in more developed regions. These researchers also suggested, contrary to the general view of Psacharopoulos, that rates of return might be higher for secondary than for primary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university.
These studies add further weight to the argument that policy recommendations based on data on rates of return should not be oversimplified. The role of technical/vocational education at the secondary level also remains controversial (Lewin 1993, 222-4; Mingat 1995, 24-5). One view is that academic studies do not provide sufficient ties to the needs of the labor market, especially for students who leave school at the secondary stage, and that technical/vocational training is necessary both for the direct skills that it provides and for the attitudes that it inculcates. During the 1980s, this perspective led to substantial expansion of secondary technical/vocational education in the PRC, for example (Yang 1998). Between 1989 and 1994, enrollments in PRC secondary vocational schools increased by 45.8 percent, while enrollments in regular senior secondary schools declined by 7.2 percent (Jiang 1996, 40). This change reflected official policy, which encouraged both the opening of new secondary vocational schools, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university and the conversion of regular secondary schools.
Along related lines, a 1994 policy in Taipei,China has led to experimentation with comprehensive high schools which seek to integrate the goals of general and vocational high schools and "to increase students' opportunities for exploring their vocational aptitudes" (Rau et al. 1996, 1).
An alternative view is that technical/vocational schools are necessarily more costly than academic ones, and that the outcomes from such forms of education, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university do not usually justify the investment s (Psacharopoulos 1991). This view is influenced by Foster's seminal (1966) paper entitled “The Vocational School Fallacy in Development Planning,” and asserts that curricula are by themselves unable to change students' attitudes toward work when labor market signals indicate that academic studies are more likely in reality to bring greater private economic returns.
rate of return seemed to decrease over time. Further complexities arise from the fact that former socialist countries have inherited wage structures that may work differently from those in long-standing capitalist countries. Newell and Reilly (1999) have presented data from 10 former socialist states, of which two Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are in Asia. In these 10 countries, rates of return appeared generally to have risen as the 1990s progressed; the returns from tertiary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university appeared to be higher than those for technical education and, where data were available, for secondary schooling. Wei et al. (1999) conducted a study in the PRC, and found that rates of return varied considerably in different parts of the country. They tended to be higher in more developed regions. These researchers also suggested, contrary to the general view of Psacharopoulos, that rates of return might be higher for secondary than for primary education, education loan consolidation, student loans, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university.
These studies add further weight to the argument that policy recommendations based on data on rates of return should not be oversimplified. The role of technical/vocational education at the secondary level also remains controversial (Lewin 1993, 222-4; Mingat 1995, 24-5). One view is that academic studies do not provide sufficient ties to the needs of the labor market, especially for students who leave school at the secondary stage, and that technical/vocational training is necessary both for the direct skills that it provides and for the attitudes that it inculcates. During the 1980s, this perspective led to substantial expansion of secondary technical/vocational education in the PRC, for example (Yang 1998). Between 1989 and 1994, enrollments in PRC secondary vocational schools increased by 45.8 percent, while enrollments in regular senior secondary schools declined by 7.2 percent (Jiang 1996, 40). This change reflected official policy, which encouraged both the opening of new secondary vocational schools, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university and the conversion of regular secondary schools.
Along related lines, a 1994 policy in Taipei,China has led to experimentation with comprehensive high schools which seek to integrate the goals of general and vocational high schools and "to increase students' opportunities for exploring their vocational aptitudes" (Rau et al. 1996, 1).
An alternative view is that technical/vocational schools are necessarily more costly than academic ones, and that the outcomes from such forms of education, education degrees, online degrees, online masters degree, online colleges, online university do not usually justify the investment s (Psacharopoulos 1991). This view is influenced by Foster's seminal (1966) paper entitled “The Vocational School Fallacy in Development Planning,” and asserts that curricula are by themselves unable to change students' attitudes toward work when labor market signals indicate that academic studies are more likely in reality to bring greater private economic returns.
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